Natural Law Theory

According to Jenkins, â€Å"The natural law theory begins with theories about the nature and purpose of the world and moves on to ask about the purpose of every action or object. The right thing to do is that which fulfils the natural purpose. † Natural law was developed by Thomas Aquinas, in which he believed that there is such a thing as natural moral law. Natural law ethics depends on the belief that the world was designed by a creator, God. It teaches everything God made has a purpose, including every aspect of human life, and everything should work towards the purpose assigned to it.If we fulfil this purpose we do ‘good’, for example it is good to preserve life (â€Å"Do not kill†). If we frustrate the purpose for which something has been created then it is morally ‘wrong’, to destroy life is against the will of good. In addition, human sexuality was designed for the reproduction of the species. Any action which helps towards the fulfilmen t of this purpose is good; anything which hinders this fulfilment is bad. Aquinas believed there were four primary precepts, â€Å"God’s aims for humans†, which we are to follow to live according to natural law.These are to reproduce, learn and develop potential, live harmoniously in society and worship god. These precepts are moral absolutes and under no circumstances can be broken. Natural law is therefore a deontological theory. According to Aquinas natural law was the, â€Å"moral code which human beings are naturally inclined towards. † There are also the secondary precepts to take into account, which are the rules and regulations which help us achieve these aims. These are actually man made laws which are based on God’s principles.Natural law is a fusion of the secular philosophy of Aristotle (who claimed that everything had a purpose and therefore the fulfilment of these purposes was good, e. g. a good knife cuts well) and the religious tradition o f the church by Aquinas. Natural law was to be a supplement of the laws given in the scriptures and draws much inspiration from the bible. Paul in Romans 1-3 argues that the moral law of God is evident from the nature of humans and the world, â€Å"Ever since the creation of the world, his invisible nature, has been clearly perceived in the things that have been made. (Romans 1:20) In Matthew 19:3-9, Jesus observes that natural law should make it clear that divorce is wrong, â€Å"For your hardness of heart Moses allowed you to divorce your wife, but from the beginning it was not so. † Marriage was designed for the building up of the married couple by each other and for birth and secure upbringing of children; divorce goes against God’s aim. Peter Mullen, Working with Morality, states, â€Å"Reason and the regularities of the natural world should be your guide. † Though are ability to reason we can get a sense of right and wrong.We can think freely for ourselve s and discover God’s intention and follow natural law. In other words we must use our reasoning powers in order to work out what is moral. This helps us deal with ethical issues which are not dealt with in the scripture e. g. euthanasia. In his book, Summa Theologiae, Aquinas maintained that we have four cardinal virtues (‘cardo’ meaning ‘a hinge’) on which are morality hinges and these four things inform as reason as well as the Decalogue. It has also maintained that we have seven capital vices. The cardinal virtues are prudence, justice, fortitude and self control.Pursing what is morally right will help us to develop these virtues and vice versa. The seven sins of morality are just the vices of pride, avarice, lust, envy, gluttony, anger and sloth. Aquinas maintains that these, in contrast with the four virtues are totally opposed to achieving the goals set out for humans in natural law. These natural virtues are expanded by the revealed virtues of faith, hope and charity derived from St Paul in Corinthians and â€Å"Aquinas held that the greater the extent to which these are developed by the individual, the greater the obedience will be to natural law. (Vardy and Grosch) When people sin according to Aquinas, it is because they are pursuing what they think is good. Human nature is generally good and therefore if we do wrong it is because we are in pursuit of an apparent good, e. g. abortion, can seem like at a good thing at times. According to Vardy and Grosch, â€Å"Humans seek apparent good, but this is not true good; only apparent good because it does not conform to the perfection of human nature which all humans share. † A historical example would be that of Hitler and Stalin, who did not seek out evil but sought what they thought, was right.The theory of natural law states that you are only responsible for the immediate consequences of your actions – not for the secondary or unintended effects of your acti on. This adds flexibility to the theory of natural law in such areas as just war and etopic pregnancy. According to Thompson, â€Å"Natural law is based on nature as seen by human reason enlightened by Christian faith. In the light of Jesus’ teaching and belief in God, reason can decide, by looking at nature, what is right. † Natural law however has some faults. It depends on the belief that the world was designed by a creator.Aquinas assumes that all men must seek to worship God, atheists not taken into consideration. According to Thompson, â€Å"†¦ if someone does not believe in God, then the natural law theory loses its foundation. † The theory also suggests that reproduction is one of God’s natural purposes of creating humankind, not considering those who are biologically incapable of having children. Thirdly, naturalistic fallacy, there is a problem with the assumption that just because something is a matter of fact in nature does not mean it ou ght to be obeyed by everyone. Hume argued that what is the case and what ought to be the case are different ideas.According to Jenkins, â€Å"sex does produce babies by this does not necessarily mean that people ought to have sex only for this purpose. † In some situations it may be necessary to against natural law to achieve a better end result, natural law is too flexible. According to Peter Mullen, â€Å"it may be necessary, for example to torture an innocent person to save the lives of thousands. † Finally, how do we define what is natural and what isn’t, there are some basic ideals but these are too vague to apply to specific situations. For example should we try to prolong the life of someone who is ill, for death is the ‘natural’ result?Natural law also puts too much emphasis on human reason. Human reason can be corrupted by sin, e. g. holocaust. However there are strengths of the natural law theory. First of all, it is a universal guide. It provides humanity with a set of common moral principles and can be sued if you are religious or not (Aristotle). Secondly it is a simple, straightforward set of rules – we look at the evidence of the natural world and apply our reason to consider if something is right or wrong. And thirdly, the principles of natural law can be applied to solve pecific moral problems – casuistry. In conclusion, â€Å"The natural law is written and engraved in the soul of each and every man; because it is human reason ordaining him to do good and forbidding him to do sin. † (Pope Leo XIII) It is claimed that everyone holds certain fundamental rights simply by virtue of being human. Some argue that rights are a modern western invention, rights are something â€Å"constructed† by a historical culture, seeking self justification for its own purpose to expand the notions and even to impose them on other cultures regardless of their traditional ways.The words ‘human rights ’ have come to mean the political norms and prescriptions that are found in international human rights documents such as the European Convention of Human Rights(1950) or the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights(1948). They deal with the way in which people should be treated by their government and its institutions. This paper proposes to develop the argument that making human rights universal is problematic, this will be done by firstly looking at the historical development of the concept of human rights, secondly the approaches taken towards questioning the validity or justification of the doctrine.Finally, to explore cultural, religious as well as gender differences which interact making human rights difficult if not problematic to universally enforce. Historical Origins and development and creation of the theory and practice The roots of human rights doctrine can be traced back to the times of Aristotle and Stoics. In his ‘Nicomachean Ethics’ Aristotle c reates the basis for the existence of a natural moral order. This would provide a potentially universal criterion for evaluating the authority of man made legal systems.Aristotle distinguishes natural justice and legal justice, â€Å"Natural justice is that which has same value everywhere and does not depend on acceptance† But the concept of rights akin to that of the contemporary idea of human rights most clearly emerges during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe and the so called doctrine of natural law. The doctrine of Natural Law held belief in the existence of a natural moral code based upon the identification of certain fundamental and objectively identifiable human goods. John Locke argued that individuals possess natural rights, ndependently of political recognition given to them by the state. He posits the idea that people held such rights independently of and prior to the formation of any political community, natural law thus is to perceive Gods will which truly gave an authentic moral code. Locke provided the precedent of establishing legitimate political authority upon a rights foundation. Compassionate to the works of the Ancient Greeks and earlier philosophers such as Pufendorf, 18TH century German Philosopher Immanuel Kant, who held that, moral reasoning relied upon the condition that all rational individuals are bound to assent.His notion of the ‘categorical imperative’, doing the right thing is not determined by acting in pursuit of ones own interest or desires but acting in agreement with the maxim which all rational individuals are to accept. â€Å"So the act the maxim of which your will can at the same time be universal law† The philosophical ideals defended by Kant and Locke come to be associated with general enlightenment project during the 17th and 18th centuries. Ideals such as human dignity and equality enshrined in the US Declaration of independence and the French National Assembly’s De claration of Man.Similarly continued through the 19th century in various political movements to extend the political suffrage to those that were denied political and civil rights. The full declaration of the doctrine of human rights occurred in the 20th century in response to the atrocities epitomized by the holocaust. The United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, enshrining fundamental human rights was adopted by the General Assembly on the 10th of December 1948. One should note that the modern doctrine of human rights is not a mere expression of the natural rights concept; rather it goes beyond it in some respects.James Nickel promotes three ways in which contemporary concept of human rights differs from and goes beyond that of natural rights. Firstly, modern human rights are more interested in viewing equality as requiring positive action by the state for instance providing welfare assistance. Whereas natural rights promoters were apt to view equality in more formalistic terms, essentially requiring the state to refrain from â€Å"interfering† in individuals lives.Secondly, where promoters of natural rights tended to conceive of human beings as mere individuals, advocates of contemporary human rights are far keener to accept the importance of family and community in individual lives. And thirdly, Nickel views modern human rights as more ‘internationalist’ in content and orientation than was typically found within arguments in support of natural rights. One can clearly understand the final assertion, since today human rights are increasingly seen as requiring international action and concern.For the benefit of the discourse, drawing this distinction between natural rights and modern human rights allows one to distinguish the development of the concept of human rights. It will also be beneficial to see the different approaches’ to human rights a well as the categories of human rights. Such discussion of the nature of human rights will demonstrate whether in Raschs view human rights cannot be justified as a universalising project. Concepts of Human Rights There are two categories that are fundamental to understand basis and potential for the application of human rights.Legal rights: these are the rights found in existing legal codes, thus benefit from the recognition and protection of the law. Disputes as to its existence can be resolved by referring to the relevant legal instrument, a legal right cannot exist prior to its passing into law, the limits of which its validity are set by the jurisdiction of the body which passes relevant legislation. Moral rights are not rights in the strict sense, better to see them as moral claims which have the potential to be incorporated into national and international law.For a legal positivist like Jeremy Bentham, there can be no such thing as human rights existing prior to or independently from legal codification. In contrast, Moral rights can exist independently from the ir legal foil. It has been argued that the black majority in Apartheid South Africa possessed a moral right to full political participation in that countries’ political system although no such legal right existed. When rights exist at international level, we speak of them as human rights, but when they are enacted at national level we see them as civil or constitutional right.To develop this even further, one can question the validity of human rights. Firstly, the interests theory approach, which holds that the principle function of human rights is to protect and promote certain key human interests. John Finnis contends, human rights are justifiable on the grounds of their instrumental value for securing the necessary conditions of human well being. The Choice or Will theory, on the other hand aims to establish philosophical validity of human rights upon a single human attribute; the capacity for freedom.Proponents of this theory argue that rights are a manifestation of the e xercise of personal autonomy, the distinctive feature of human agency which should be the core concern of rights. Human rights and Universality In identifying the historical roots of human rights and some basic general conceptual and justificatory approaches’ to the topic, the question whether human rights are â€Å"universal† is to ask whether there are good reasons for believing that the norms and prescriptions contained in the international documents symbolising apply to and obligate all human beings equally, regardless of their cultural, social or geographical location.The argument posed by Rasch is that human rights possess personal character which means in spirit that they cannot intrinsically adhere to the cultural, religious and social differences. This contention will be the basis of the remaining space of this essay. Rasch holds, that both Rawls, Habermas who were inspired by the Kantian project of discerning the rational ordering of human society is the proj ect of a â€Å"universalist ideology† that is homogenous and self justificatory.In other words he is arguing that the natural laws which initially held basic rights of individuals is â€Å"Christianized†. Such is the essence of human rights that truly they cannot be all inclusive and ever embracing. Rasch’s assertion must be examined closely, paying particular attention to the issue about the norms and values inherent in ‘western’ human rights are not the basis for human rights in all corners of the plane Rawls claimed that human rights â€Å"specify limits to a regimes internal autonomy† and that †¦their fulfillment is sufficient to exclude justified and forceful interventions by diplomatic and economic sanctions or in grave cases of military force†. Indeed, it is a generalization to suggest there is a line defined by human rights where national sovereignty ends. The reason being, â€Å"fulfillment† of human rights is a ver y unclear idea, because no country fully satisfies human rights, all countries have human rights problems, some large many â€Å"gross† violations. One of the most significant challenges to contemporary human rights is the presumed objective basis of the doctrine as moral rights.On this view moral principles are inherently subjective in character in that they express individuals’ incomplete preferences Protagoras claimed that â€Å"†¦no persons opinions can be said to be more correct than another’s, because each is the sole judge of his or her experiences†¦Ã¢â‚¬  In modern times, such arguments have been defended by the likes of Richard Rorty, who argues that human rights are based on sentimental vision of humanity, that human rights are not rationally defensible and fundamentally are emanated by sympathetic identification with others as opposed to reason.Kant differentiated between modes of expressions into objective and subjective propositions. He asserted that if an individual’s analysis is not accepted universally then it remains the moral position of the individual, thus a distinction between law and morality. In other words, one cannot assert their moral views and principles on others and expect them to be accepted. Knowledge acquired essentially should be objective in form.But subjective acquisition of knowledge as Kant saw, through individual reasoning or ‘moral law’ of the individual, acceptance of it will raise the individuals knowledge, thus knowledge is a steady cultural effort, In contrast, Michael Foucault argued that acquisition of knowledge should be subjective , he held that â€Å"truth† is the instrument of power’ which should be used to strengthen knowledge.Human rights are related to moral convictions; moral convictions are determined by underlying cultural commitments; underlying commitments differ fundamentally from one culture to another; therefore, the interpretation of human rights must vary fundamentally across cultures. Cultural Relativism is the most fashionable attempts to challenge the universality of human rights. One may suspect that Muslim and Asian critics of human rights suppose that their own views are in fact superior to Western ideas, and that everyone would be better off if their views came to prevail universally. Because ultures differ, and because human rights must vary accordingly, no one culture can go around trying to impose its view of human rights on others. Islam’s characterization of human rights is based on its followers holding true to the word of the religion. A Muslim sees rights much in the same was as a Hindu, a series of duties to the creator, in order to attain the higher freedom of enlightenment at death. The publication of ‘Satanic Verses’ by Salman Rushdie which offended Muslims worldwide, highlights how the western concept of human rights, to free speech can be incompatible with Sharia law.It is undeniable that the international community derives its values from a liberal consensus that is in essence a secularized Christian ethic. The traditionalist Muslims have not been the only critics of the western standard of human rights, until very recently the Catholic Church has been a strong opposition to what it saw as a conquest over the values of Christian community. The hearts of monotheistic religions are in conflict with the basis of human rights.Human rights doctrine is ‘humancentric’ essentially based on the responsibility and autonomy of the individual, the doctrine takes its premise in the authority of the state i. e. secularism and as its primary aim, to prevent abuse of power by the state over the individual. While monotheistic religions emphasis the will of god through the community. A study of prominent religion and development journals revealed that â€Å"religion and spirituality’’ are under represented in â€Å"†¦development li terature and in the policies and programmes’ of development organizations†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢The unique case of Re A (Conjoined Twins: Surgical separation), where doctors wished to separate Siamese twins otherwise both would have died, the parents opposed the operation on religious grounds, though the hospital and courts were choosing the â€Å"lesser of two evils† in that if the operation was not carried out the twins would die but if the operation went ahead one would live, the operation was allowed. Such a judgment is clearly confrontational with the religious duty of individuals.Furthermore, cultural imperialisms impact on human rights; Cultures are compelled to accept apparent universal standards because they are pressured to do so by more powerful cultures. Donnelly, contends that the American human rights regime can be explained by the power that lies within it, He believes that the dominant power of united states, in exercising its supreme power ensures support and creation of its interests. Essentially, human rights’ as an objective project is in reality established on subjective norms.The global institutions developed, in the hope to exercise their view of human rights through creation of instruments in the form of universal declarations or agreements, to which all cultures agree to, comply. The preamble to the United Nations Charter, demonstrates the clear declaration of universal intention by all member states to agree to a universal set of standards and norms. Who were behind the utopian ideal? The creation of United Nations was a result of recommendations by United Kingdom and the United States, the new ‘cultural imperialists’. We the United States recognise and accept our deep involvement in the destiny of men everywhere† Such was the sentiment expressed by President Eisenhower. During the creation of the UN and even today the membership is still increasingly western with a low presence of Asian, African or Ara b membership. USA evidently believed it was responsible for peace, security and human rights over other cultures, naturally ensuring that their values and norms become universal and dominant.In addition, the delegation for Saudi Arabia to the committee drafting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1947, expressed that the committee â€Å"†¦for the most part taken into consideration only standards recognised by western civilisation†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The delegation contended that the committee was not to â€Å" proclaim the superiority of one civilization over all others or to establish uniform standards for all the countries in the world†Rawls argued that human rights are â€Å"international and universal† in that they apply to all individuals everywhere, however, such sentimental objections outlined are commonly expressed by not only Middle Eastern states but also Asian countries like China, the reason for this is that â€Å"Asian Values† place the goo d of the community over those of the individual, one can deduct that there isn’t universal consensus on the subject of human rights. Western values inherent in international human rights documents such as the UDHR are in what one can term cultural conflict as there is a clash of difference in values and norms.What can also be deduced from the lack of consensus, is that rights are ‘culture specific’, Human rights appear in the context of particular social, economic, cultural and political conditions. This is unquestionably true, since what circumstances brought about human rights in the west cannot be said to exist elsewhere. China has echoed such attitude in a 1991 white paper â€Å"†¦owing to tremendous differences in historical background, social system, cultural tradition and economic development, countries differ in their understanding and practice of human rights†¦Ã¢â‚¬ The dominance of western thought or ideological heritage in eastern or differ ent legal jurisdictions will not necessarily be accepted; rather what should happen is that human rights should â€Å"be considered in the context of a dynamic and evolving process of international norm-setting, bearing in mind the significance of national and regional peculiarities and various historical, cultural, and religious backgrounds†¦Ã¢â‚¬  In line with the last mentioned point, the issue of political sovereignty is worth noting.A state has national sovereignty to determine matters of human rights locally, rather than relying on international agencies to externally determine national affairs. The issue of human rights falls by and large within the sovereignty of each state. In 1995, the Chinese government confirmed its opposition to â€Å"some countries' hegemonic acts of using a double standard for the human rights of other countries . . . and imposing their own pattern on others, or interfering in the internal affairs of other countries by using `human rights' as a pretext. The West's attempt to apply universal standards of human rights to developing countries is disguised cultural imperialism and an attempt to obstruct their development. It can be emphasized that human rights are harms which the law commits and heals through human rights. They are concerned with the terrible rather than with achieving the best. Their aim is achieving minimally good lives for all people, or so it is claimed. For instance, Article 3 Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person’. As outlined earlier in the discourse, legal rights are in essence human rights as their basic action is to extend theoretical recognition and respect to all. But, New rights creating new ways of being in common with others else where open the boundaries of community. Karl Marx insisted that political community both upholds and denies universality of rights since rights support and are supported in turn by the inequalities of economy and culture.Economic exploitation of the urban poor through unemployment, low paid wages, poor health of developing countries through unequal trade and rising debt undermines and ultimately destroys the prospect of self determination when daily survival is the order of the day; all aspirations for social improvement or cultural expression are quenched. Thomas Pogge argues that basic human rights ambit of â€Å"securing life, liberty and security† has not been fulfilled That world poverty is an ongoing harm we inflict seems completely incredible to most citizens of the affluent countries. We call it tragic that the basic human rights of so many remain unfulfilled†¦Ã¢â‚¬  If it is accepted, that affluent nations such as USA, France and the UK are the beneficiaries of advancing the universality of human rights and the doctrine is inherently favorable to them, then what Pogge argues is the ‘nexus between our global institutional order and the persistence o f severe poverty ‘, then the injustice of such an order can also be accepted.It cannot be denied that the values of the consumer society cannot be applied to societies that have nothing to consume, since talking about universal rights is rather like saying that the rich and the poor both have the same right to fly first class and to sleep under bridges. What is justified in Britain in terms of legal rights cannot totally be the same in Malaysia. Clearly, there is a distinction of what law is and what is morally correct from the view of collective individuals, community and ultimately a nation.Rights promoting the equality of sexes are a contentious point The Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) was adopted by UN General Assembly in 1979, it codified women’s right to equality in all spheres of life as a global norm. Article 2(f) of the convention imposes positive obligation on member states to modify or abolish â€Å"custom s and practices† which discriminate against women. Cultural differences have practical implications. Whether women’s human rights can be universal is at a moot point, since some cultures are seen as patriarchal like Islam and Buddhism.But a controversial but pertinent example of an approach that seeks to strengthen cultural integrity and individual freedom is India’s Muslim Women (Protection of Rights Upon Divorce) Act. This legislation was enacted after the case of Shah Banu, the Supreme Court of India upheld the right of a divorced Muslim woman to alimony, prompting outrage from Muslim traditionalists who claimed this violated their religious beliefs that divorced women were only entitled to the return of the bride price paid upon marriage.The Indian parliament then passed a law to override the court's judgment, under which Muslim women married under Muslim law would be obliged to accept the return of the bride price as the only payment of alimony. F. Raday cla ims that the most widespread inequality women face is the treating of women as housewives or mothers and not being able to integrate fully in the public domain. Equality, despite assertions of Declarations and Constitutions that ‘women are like men’ and that ‘women are different from men’ is a political construct, as Hegel and Marx argued which is expressed through the legal.The law as Hegel argued is ill equipped to accommodate difference human rights claims therefore involve an inconsistent dialectic between an impossible demand for universal equality that is identifiable with the western man. From the above discussion, it has been expounded that human rights cannot be absolutely universal to accommodate societal differences. What is universally different lies in the cultural as well as religious and gender dissimilarities that is the backbone to incomplete consensus on the subject of human rights.Common Western cultural roots are the basis of internation al treaties establishing so called universal human rights, leading non western cultures to conform to prejudiced norms. The knowledge promulgated in the doctrine is inherently subjective in character embodying the dominant cultural preferences. In reply to William Rasch, human rights cannot totally be justified as they are not completely and entirely impartial so as to accommodate cultural disparity.To paraphrase Oona Hathaway International public opinion have often been lured â€Å"that (in the words of Columbia Law professor Louis Henkin) ‘almost all nation observe almost all principles of international law and almost all of their obligations almost all of the times’†. This assertion can definitely be regarded as false when it comes to Human Rights. Examples can be found involving â€Å"almost† all the countries â€Å"almost† all of the times. It took America nearly forty years to ratify, with qualifying conditions the 1948 Genocide Convention.Fra nce has never transcripted in its national law the UN Charter for the Rights of Children (which has never been ratified by the USA). Last but not least, most of the genocides that have been perpetrated since the end of World War II, have taken place in countries party to the already quoted 1948 Genocide Convention (Rwanda, Yugoslavia, Iraq, etc†¦). In fact, it seems impossible to imagine a way of enforcing Human Rights when one reckons that it is already impossible to enforce the principles of international law. Indeed, the respect of international agreements is completely left to the will of the nations parties to these agreements.The respect (or non-respect) of a signed treaty is a matter of sovereignty and no sanction can be envisaged but a military intervention violating this concept of sovereignty. This is also Carlos Santiago Nino’s stance: according to this author the most serious limitation of the strategy of enforcing Human Rights is â€Å"that the still curren t conception of sovereignty of states impose severe restrictions on the obligations that governments accept by their commitment and on the forms of intervention available to external organs for investigating and punishing Human Rights violations†.The conception of a potential international normative system has to clash with the ideal of self determination because there is no ‘global civil society’. Or in Chris Brown’s words â€Å"properly understood, ‘civil society’ requires an effective state, while ‘global civil society’ is characteristically seen as a substitute for such a political order. Furthermore, it may be doubted that the mind-set required to make a civil society work actually exists in the world today†.For that reason, the application of treaties in the different countries stayed a matter of self-determination and self-policing, leading, of course, to consequent opportunities of Human Rights breaches, and impeachi ng nearly all attempts in enforcing Human Rights.5754 wordsBibliography Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) European Convention of Human Rights (1950) The Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979) Re A (2002) Court of Appeal (Civil Division) [2000] 3 FCR 577 United Nations Press Release : MEMBERSHIP OF PRINCIPAL UNITED NATIONS ORGANS IN 2005 http://www. un. rg/News/Press/docs/2005/org1436. doc. htm Charter of The United Nations http://www. un. org/News/Press/docs/2005/org1436. doc. htm Secondary Sources Books Douzinas and A. Gearey, ‘Critical jurisprudence’ (Hart Publishing 2005) W. A. Edmundson ‘ An Introduction to Rights’ Cambridge University Press, 2004 Kraut R, Aristotle: political philosophy (OUP 2002) p125 George. R. P, ‘In defence of Natural Law’ (OUP 2001) J. Nickel. Making Sense of Human Rights: Philosophical Reflections on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, (Berkeley; Universit y of California Press, 1987) Rawls ‘The Law of Peoples 1999, p 70- 80 Cambell, Ewing and Tomkins, ‘Sceptical Essays on Human Rights’ (OUP 2001) p297-315 R. Rorty ‘Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature’ (Princeton University Press 1981 Kant, ‘Critique Of Pure Reaso’n (Hackett Publishing 1996,) I. Kant ‘Critique of Practical Reason’ (Hacket Publishing 2002) S. Houlgate, ‘An Introduction to Hegel: Freedom, Truth and History’, (Blackwell Publishing, 2006) F. Hegel, ‘On Christianity: Early Theological Writings’, (Harper Torchbooks, 1961) P. D’Entreves and S. Benhabib, ‘Habermas and the Unfinished Project of Modernity’, (Polity Press 1996) K.Hastrup, ‘Human Rights on Common Grounds: The Quest for Universality’, (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001) Douzinas ‘The End of Human Rights’, (Hart Publishing 2000) Articles S. Tharoor, ‘Are Human Rights Universal? â⠂¬â„¢ (World Policy Journal Vol. XVI, No4, WINTER 1999/2000) F. Raday, ‘Culture, Religion and Gender’ (OUP and New York School of Law,2003, Vol. 1 No. 4) T. Pogge ‘World Poverty and Human Rights’ (Ethics and International Affairs 19, no1. 2005) X. Li ‘Report from the Institute for Philosophy and Public Policy’ Volume 16, No. 2, Spring 1999 J Donnelly,’ Human Rights and Human Dignity’, (American Political Science Review 76 1982,) A.Pagden, ‘Human Rights, Natural Rights and Europe’s Imperial Legacy’ Political Theory’, Vol. 31, No2 (2003) E. Tomailn,‘Religion and Rights Based Approach to Development’ (Progress in Development Studies:2006,6:93) D. Renteln, ‘The Unanswered Challenges of Relativism’ (Vol. 7 Human Rights Quarterly,1985)Yimga, Andre Marie (Human Rights League, Cameroon): â€Å"Are Human Rights universal – a common heritage shared among cultures? † Rasch. W . ‘Human Rights as Geopolitics’ (Cultural Critique 54 spring 2003) Websites United Nations Official Website http://www. un. org/Overview/rights. htmlInternational Humanist and Ethical Union http://www. iheu. org/node/2874 United States Institute of Peace http://www. usip. org/religionpeace/rehr/universality. html President Eisenhower’s Second Inaugural Address http://www. homeofheroes. com/presidents/inaugural/34_ike_2. htmlEssays on Popular Politics and Human Rights http://www. irmgard-coninx-stiftung. de/index. php? id=1

Fast Food Nation Paper Essay

Eric Schlosser’s Fast Food Nation is about the fast food industry and all its negative aspects and influences. Schlosser introduces Fast Food Nation with a description of the California orange groves of the past and the fast food influenced urbanization that has replaced the groves. Schlosser concludes through a bold statement, â€Å"The low price of a fast food hamburger does not reflect its real cost ? and should. The profits of the fast food chains have been made possible by losses imposed on the rest of society. † Eric Schlosser is incorrect in his assumption that the price of a hamburger does not reflect its true cost. Its price represents America’s gain from the blessing of fast food. The fast food revolution has aided in the creation of many new technologies. Research sparked by pressure placed on the cattle industry has resulted in new methods of cattle raising. It has been found that grain fed cattle grow at a faster rate than free range cattle. A method of grain feeding has been engineered and perfect, and it has resulted in a larger number of cattle to be raised and an increase in beef consumption. Increased consumption benefits both the fast food chains and the beef suppliers. Fast food has also influenced advertising technology. McDonald’s invented Ronald McDonald in order to attract children; who would bring their parents and grandparents. Many industries have realized the potential in advertisements aimed at children, such as Camel Cigarettes and Marlboro Cigarettes, and beer companies that use slapstick humor to entertain children. The fast food industry employs a large portion of the teenage workforce. Teenagers are often willing to work for minimum wage since they are dependent on their parents. Teenagers do not need benefits; therefore, they are perfect workers to work less than forty hours per week. According to Eric Schlosser the employment of teenagers results in their exploitation and abuse. Abuse and exploitation are prevalent inside industry and outside industry and if anyone searched for abuse in the workplace, he or she would find it in every business and industry. Schlosser writes about the effects of the big business fast food industry on the cattle and poultry industries. He states that the fast food industries’ control over the restaurant market has resulted in the ability to control the prices of meat. By driving down prices, the fast food industry eliminates the farmer rancher and forces poverty on the small farmer. I have had a personal experience that negates Schlosser’s entire argument. Over the course of the last year, my parents and I traveled to Maryland looking for a new home. All throughout the Maryland rural areas, people have small-scale poultry farms. The small scale poultry raising is the result of one of the largest meat packing plants on the east coast being built in Maryland. The only effect fast food has on the small-scale farmer is positive. Fast Food Nation by Eric Schlosser is a one sided argument against fast food restaurants. When the benefits of the fast food industry, such as urbanization, which further aids in industrialization; teenage employment; and a large agricultural industry, are ignored, it is easy to see why Schlosser believes the price of a fast food hamburger doesn’t reflect its cost. The low cost, in reality, represents the many benefits fast food has given America.

Betrayal In The Kite Runner English Literature Essay

Betrayal In The Kite Runner English Literature Essay In this essay I pretend to demonstrate what is betray, in both books it presents a long variety of examples of betrayal, as we know betray is something that had exist in all over the world also is considered as a sin, most of the people had been betrayed more than one time in their lives, but anyone can tell or express their feelings when they feel betrayed, the only way that people can express that feeling is writing, Khaled Hosseini and Ian McEwan show us in their books how betray is presented in the characters. I had read both books and I love them because present us a lot of themes that I feel related with them, but the most important theme that interest me is betray because most of people had suffered one single act of betray. I can compare these two books because both have similarities and can compare to in real life, in a real context. Also these two books showed us how people betray their closest friends or families. The most important think that I am going to present is the cultural differences between Amir and Bryony and why is the main purpose of acting like that and the Redemption of their acts. The first time when Amir Commit betrays is when he saw Assef raping Hassan when Amir won the Kites contest because Hassan denied giving up the kite blue of Amir to Assef; when Assef was ripping Hassan he said â€Å"A loyal Hazara, loyal as a dog†. (The kite runner pages 71-78)1. With this quote I try to explain how betray is clearly present because he betray his confidence, Amir should try to do something to help Hassan and stop that act of insanity. Also Amir felt that he deserved because Amir comes from and high social class because their cultural differences are so strong, because Amir’s and Hassan’s father is the same but he made love with the servant but Amir is a Pashtu and Hassan is a Hazara. The Kite Runner pages 71-78)1 In Atonement Briony betrays her sister, because Briony saw her sister having sex in the library with Robbie à ¢â‚¬Å"When she took another few steps she saw then, dark shapes in the furthest corner. Though they were immobile, her immediately understanding was that she had interrupted an attack, a hand-to-hand fight. The scene was so entirely a realization of her worst fears that she sensed that her overanxious imagination had projected the figures onto the packed spines of books. This illusion, or hope of one, was dispelled as her eyes adjusted to the gloom. No one moved. Briony stared past Robbie’s shoulder into terrified eyes of her sister.† (Atonement page 116)2 , but when the twin’s carrot head escaped to their home, Briony was looking for them and suddenly saw that Lola was being raped by an unknown person, Briony think that Robbie did it because she thought that he was a sexual maniac because she had read the letter that Robbie sent to her sister. Briony betrays her sister because she told to the police that Robbie tried to rape Lola, suddenly Briony showed them the letter that Robbie wrote to Cecilia. Briony never realized that she destroyed two lives (Cecilia and Robbie Lives). Here I tried to explain in both books how families can betray their relatives and destroy a life, also these two books have are related in the same way of betrayal why I said this well, because Briony and Amir had betrayed in one purpose; to feel secure of themselves and demonstrate who is in charge or demonstrate that they are not weak.

Killing Us Softly 4 - movie review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Killing Us Softly 4 - movie review - Essay Example According to Hook, black women positively responded to Sapphire film which negated black female representation by showing how frustrated and violent black women are as well as terming black women as bitches? Interestingly, the black females instead responded to the movie by saying that it exactly portrayed what their characters and behavior are (Hooks 120-121) Women tend to copy perfection shown on the advertisements yet these flawless are not real and cannot be achieved by the advertisers themselves. Advantages portray models as people with slim perfect look hence making the audience to try to lose weight and gain smooth skin just like the image seen in the advertisement. It is interesting to note that failure for the audience to achieve or resemble the image of the celebrity is treated as let down (Kilbourne Film). The message Kilbourne communicates is that no matter how much we try to idolize other people, we can never be perfect at all. Women should just accept their normal looks without imitating others. Advertisement and the media do not show us reality and this is even evident when the celebrities portrayed as beautiful also dispute the media imaging. There is no photograph of a woman that is not photo shopped and beauty is depicted by a white ideal that includes light skin and straight hair (Kilbourne Film). Advertisements normally dismember women bodies by focusing only one part of the body such as breast, unlike men whose bodies are not scrutinized and criticized.

SMEs in Chinas Textile and Clothing Industry Essay

SMEs in Chinas Textile and Clothing Industry - Essay Example Such situation is result from three reasons. Firstly, after China's entry of WTO, the firms in this industry are facing fierce competition from entry of foreign textile and clothing giant firms in domestic market. Secondly, the restriction from Europe and U.S. which are the main destination where Chinese clothing firms export has been published on June, 2005 (www.china.com. 2005). Finally, the recent appreciation of Chinese currency led to the decrease of export benefit; in other words, it increased the price of products in foreign market so as to reduce the product competitiveness of textile and clothing products exported. Therefore, regarding the serious situation they never met, it is essential to investigate and find out the most effective and successful way of exporting, especially for small- and medium- firms in China's textile and clothing industry. The main aim of this study is to investigate the export methods and their influence on performance of small- and medium- firms (SMEs) in China's textile and clothing industry. ... Such situation is result from three reasons. Firstly, after China's entry of WTO, the firms in this industry are facing fierce competition from entry of foreign textile and clothing giant firms in domestic market. Secondly, the restriction from Europe and U.S. which are the main destination where Chinese clothing firms export has been published on June, 2005 (www.china.com. 2005). Finally, the recent appreciation of Chinese currency led to the decrease of export benefit; in other words, it increased the price of products in foreign market so as to reduce the product competitiveness of textile and clothing products exported. Therefore, regarding the serious situation they never met, it is essential to investigate and find out the most effective and successful way of exporting, especially for small- and medium- firms in China's textile and clothing industry. 1.2 Objective of the Study The main aim of this study is to investigate the export methods and their influence on performance of small- and medium- firms (SMEs) in China's textile and clothing industry. With this purpose, the study is going to identify the export method that is most frequently used and preferred to employ by SMEs when they engage in international export activities; furthermore, will also try to explore the method that is the most effective and successful for SMEs to penetrate into foreign markets as judged by export performance, so as to provide some information which could be useful in companies decision-making about the future exporting and the factors deciding it. Specifically, the objective of this study can be concluded as follows, Investigating the difference of employed export method of SMEs in terms of different

How useful is the concept of semi-presidentialism for understanding Essay

How useful is the concept of semi-presidentialism for understanding the political regime of the Fifth Republic - Essay Example The first aspect worth analyzing is to what extent France meets Duverger’s first criteria: a president elected by universal suffrage. In 1962, the then French president Charles de Gaulle passed a constitutional amendment altering the presidential election from parliamentary to universal suffrage (Curtis 2004). This meant that the president of the republic would be elected by the population, and therefore had to become a strong and appealing individual leader. At the time, this benefited De Gaulle since he epitomized charismatic leadership and desired a system were the president wielded the majority of government power and responsibility. Universal suffrage gave constitutional power to the president, as he, by virtue of being elected by majority vote, now possessed similar legitimacy to that of a majority in the Assembly. Thus, 1962 marked the beginning of a shift of power from the Assembly to the President, and is even considered by Robert Elgie to be the point that establishe d the Fifth Republic as a semi-presidential regime.   The second criteria of Duverger’s definition of semi-presidential regime is that â€Å"(2) he possesses quite considerable powers† (Duverger, 1980:166 cited in Elgie:2009). Scholars such as Robert Elgie criticized Duverger for being too vague in his definition of semi-presidential regimes. For instance, Duverger underscores the fact that the president must possess considerable powers, but never expounds on this idea in order to establish what is deemed to be considerable. Reading further on Duverger’s other work such as A NEW POLITICAL SYSTEM MODEL: SEMI-PRESIDENTIAL GOVERNMENT (1980), Duverger defined the considerable powers saying that French Fifth Republic as â€Å"A country with an all-powerful presidency† (Duverger 1980:170). He justified this proposition by citing Article 16 which states

Should our courts, as Jane Stapleton has suggested, wipe out recovery Essay

Should our courts, as Jane Stapleton has suggested, wipe out recovery for pure nervous shock on the basis that no reasonable bou - Essay Example It goes without saying that existed times in the history of the English society in general and the world community in particular when ‘harm’ as it goes in the law was considered to be a gross and visible injury caused to a person or persons1. As the science of psychology and psychiatry evolved and gained formal recognition, it dawned upon the society and the associated disciplines and institutions like law that the notion of a ‘psychiatric injury or harm’, sometimes unaccompanied by blood or gore was a valid, acceptable and plausible possibility. So, the institution of law attempted to commensurately extend the available remedies and recoveries, albeit to accommodate within its ambit the notions of psychiatric injury or harm. The concept of ‘nervous shock’ within the English law is a direct outcome of such humane and propitious developments.2 The problem is that the ‘nervous shock’ inflicted on a person is often not quantifiable lik e physical injuries, not to mention the many other pragmatic problems associated with this legal concept. In the light of this problem, there exists a school of intelligentsia represented by luminaries like Jane Stapleton who advocate the abolition of the legal remedies associated with such harm.3 Yet, it will be utterly sensitive and reasonable to hold that considering the problems and confusions associated with a form of injury or harm, necessitates and calls for a further evolution of the English law, rather than vying for the already scarce remedies available for it. Nervous Shock As per the English Law, ‘nervous shock’ stands to be a psychiatric illness caused to a person, usually intentionally. This legal provision also includes the psychiatric illnesses caused to a person owing to the negligent behaviour of somebody. It goes without saying that the term ‘nervous shock’ is somewhat misleading in the context of the issue it intends to cover. Yet, the E nglish Law has chosen to continue with the usage of this term to refer to the complex notion or concept it alludes to. As per the English Law, a person can claim damages, owing to the nervous shock caused to one by the intentional or negligent behaviour of a person or a party. However, recovery due to nervous shock is to some extent restrained if not impossible in the English Law. This development is influenced by the fact that mostly no reasonable boundaries for the course of action can be traced in such cases. ‘Nervous shock’ is this context is an issue that the English Law is still trying to grapple with so as to somewhat concretize and positively solidify the remedies and provisions associated with this form of wrong or injury.4 Problems Associated with the Concept of Nervous Shock In the realm of law, which depends to a great extent on logic, rationality and the analysis of reasonable and verifiable facts, the concept of ‘nervous shock’ almost seems to be an aberration and anomaly. In that context, the possibility of a mental injury or shock appears to have a predilection towards the realm of philosophy or metaphysics. Mind, no doubt, since times immemorial has been considered to be a metaphysical term, which is known and understood by many but which evades all attempts at generalization or the possibility of arriving at a common agreement as to holding some universal definition.5 Mind is an attribute that has to do

Marketing Environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Marketing Environment - Essay Example The work is about marketing. It defines the term marketing and dwells on its strategies. The author describes factors that still need to be considered for a business organization to reach out easier to their target market, because looking into the characteristics and thought processes of the people still holds as the most significant factor to be looked into by the individuals in the field of sales and marketing. The researcher singles out such factors as quality of a product/service, reliability of a product/service, and attraction of a product/service. At the same time while taking-care of the customer’s choice a lot of other factors have also to be considered. Those factors are the social, legal, economic, political and technological factors. The social factor basically means which classes of people are being targeted by the organization that is making that particular brand - whether it is the upper-class or the upper-middle class, middle-class or the lower class. Gaining t he trust of the local government and reviewing the economic policies and legal matters that govern the country in which the product or service will be made available will be a strong ground from which the advertisers can make as a take off point. The tremendous growth of technological advancement has become the driving force of contemporary industries. The diffusion of the internet has revolutionized the business arena. The author provides PESTLE analysis of the "mother care" brand.

Alcatel-Lucent mobile Wallet case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Alcatel-Lucent mobile Wallet - Case Study Example This provides the user with less friction when using bitcoin in daily transactions. In a case where a user’s wallet has been tampered with, the user can create a new vault and considering that vaults and wallets are paired, this new empty vault invalidates the old wallet. One of the main benefits of this system is that it allows a user to separate their savings from their day-to-day spending. Additionally, the system enables such a user to carry those daily transactions with less friction. The mobile wallet from Alcatel-Lucent equally provides banking services to both developed and developing countries. In developed countries, person-to-person money transfer necessitates the use of this service. On the other hand, underdeveloped banking networks in developing countries have led to many people turning to this service. Despite having tremendous benefits to developing countries, Alcatel-Lucent mobile wallet has been applied more in developed countries. According to Anthony Belpaire, the managing director of Alcatel-Lucent mobile wallet, there are tremendous opportunities for consumers using this service in developed countries (Chaki et al 2011, p.221). Most people in these countries have mobile phones which makes the use of mobile wallet possible to most people in these countries. One of the challenges of decentralized electronic currency systems is managing the various subsystems of the main system to ensure that users can transfer currencies. There is also the risk of losing an electronic device that holds a key to these funds. This may imply losing all the money associated with that device. In order to solve this challenge, fixed-access scenarios have been created to secure electronic devices. This involves encryption and decryption of a disk file paired with a backup of the information stored in the disk file. PEST is a tool used by businesses to analyze the political, economic, socio-cultural and technological changes in a business. Porter’s five

Workplace Saftey Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Workplace Saftey - Case Study Example Assessment of risks in the operational department in a bank involves assessing the various risks including their effects, establishing possible alternative ways of avoiding the risk, making the decision on the best strategy to mitigate the risk and implementing the risk controls adopted by the firm. By the time a bank makes decision on the mitigation measures, the management has accepted the occurrence of the risks and is not trying to reduce the effects on the firm. In one of the banks, the management assessed the risks affecting its operations department by beginning by assessing the issue at hand. This was followed by balancing resources in establishing possible solutions and balancing resources in establishing the solutions. Thereafter, the management communicated the risks and intended intentions by its actions. A debrief that involved taking of action and monitoring responses followed. Task 2: WHS Harmonization a. Objectives of Harmonisation The main objective of the harmonizat ion of the act was to ensure that the entire country has one law that governs work place safety for all employees. In addition, the regulations are to ensure safe working conditions for the entire country and commonwealth countries. The states had to maintain their jurisdiction over because employees work in the states and it would be easier for them to handle workplace safety issues rather than the federal government. b. Features of a WHS act The act is about setting a good working environment regarding health and safety of employees in organizations. The changes that were made to the act were several and were made in different section of the law as outlined below. In section four, a new definition of â€Å"engage in conduct† was given as the means of doing an act while the corresponding jurisdiction was provided as â€Å"A jurisdiction may extend the operation of a provision that applies to a corresponding WHS law to specified laws of the jurisdiction. This should be dealt with separately in the provision or regulations under the provision† (Safework Australia 2) In section 7, the jurisdiction note was omitted and replaced by anew jurisdiction note that sought to alter section 7(1). In some sections such as sections 8(2), 20(1)a, 22(5), 28(d), 36 and 52(3) among others, articles and prepositions were added to alter the meanings of the constituents of the law. In section 98, merely was replaced by only while clause 110 was omitted and replaced by another clause outlining discriminatory conduct, its proof, avoiding discrimination and jurisdiction over misconduct (Safework Australia 3). c. Implications of WHS act for i) Organizations The implications of the act on organization are that firms should establish a healthy and safe working environment. All working environments in Australia and other commonwealth countries are to comply with the act failure to which they will be sued. The organization is responsible for initiating the necessary changes regarding a safe and healthy working environment for its employees. ii) Managers/supervisors The managements of companies are responsible for implementing the policies stipulated in the act regarding provision of a healthy and safe working environment. The act stipulates what is called a safe and healthy working environment. What is reasonably practicable in relation to duty to ensure safety and health means what is to be done reasonably to ensure health and safety of employees. The managers and supervisors in an organization are to provide the practicable duty of care in any form of business. Proper inspection of premises should be undertaken frequently by the management to ensure that a proper

Eddie Murphy Essay Example for Free

Eddie Murphy Essay While pondering the question of what I should write my paper on I was flipping through the channels on the television. As I scrolled through I stopped on the movie The Nutty Professor. The actor that I love and am impressed by in this movie is non other than Eddie Murphy. Mr. Murphy is a comedian and professional actor that is very well known and very well respected. With this paper I hope to tell about the life and the professional aspects of this amazing actor. Edward Regan Murphy was born April 3rd, 1961 in Brooklyn, New York. In his early years he grew up in the projects of Bushwick. His father, Charles, was a police officer in New York and was also an amateur comedian. His mother, Lillian, was a telephone operator and divorced Eddies father when he was three. Charles was not only Eddies fathers name, but his older brothers name as well. Charlie Murphy is two years older than Eddie, and is also a comedian. Murphy was not the brightest crayon in the box when it came to school, but he had excellent verbal skills. By age 15 he hosted a talent show at the Roosevelt Youth Center. He had stolen the show and became a fan favorite with his Al Green impersonation. Murphy developed a fever for a chance at show biz. He began to perform at local bars and clubs, and his grades started to slip dramatically. He was forced to repeat the 10th grade. Eddie got his head back on his shoulders and doubled down on his classes and eventually graduated a few months late. After graduation he enrolled himself in to Nassau Community College. He continued to do his shows at local clubs and venues until finally landing himself at the Comic Strip in New York City. At times he had called himself the disciple of the late Richard Pryor. Unlike all his comic idols, Eddie did not smoke or drink and had once said to Barbara Walters, I dont have to sniff cocaine to make me funny. (Biography 1) In 1980, Eddie tried out for the cast on the famous show Saturday Night Live. He tried out for the part six times and ended up on the show as an extra appearing in a few episodes. His break came when the producers realized they had four minutes of air time left and no material. Eddies stand up saved the show and was eventually brought back for the following season. In 1982, Murphy received a Grammy nomination for a live album of resh stand-up material called Eddie Murphy: Comedian. Also during 1982 at only 21-years-old Murphy starred along side Nick Nolte in the movie 48 Hours. This movie was a hit and grossed over $5 million in the first week it was released. In 1983, Paramount Pictures offered Murphy $25 million to take part in six pictures. Beverley Hills Cop was released in 1984. This was one of Murphys greatest performances of his career. The movie hit number 9 on the list of all time box office hits. Murphy was not only a comedian and an actor he was also a singer. He released his first album called How could it be? , in 1984. It was produced by the late Rick James who may be mostly known now because of Dave Chappelles famous line, Im Rick James Bitch. The single Party All the Time peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100. (Biography 2) A major film that boosted Murphys career was the romantic comedy Coming to America. This film was done in 1988. The film was a hit and grossed over $128 million in the US alone. This was the first film that demonstrated his comedic versatility by playing multiple characters within the film. This may have been the first film that Murphy had done this, but it for sure wouldnt be the last. In 1996, Murphy starred in a hit remake of the Jerry Lewis film The Nutty Professor. He earned a Golden Globe nomination and an Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy Horror Films Award for his role in the film. (Wikipedia) In May of 1997, Murphy gained some unwanted publicity. He was discovered at 4:45 AM in Los Angeles will a known transsexual prostitute. A spokesman for the actor maintained Murphy was just being a good Samaritan by offering the transsexual a ride. Murphy was not arrested for anything, but he became the butt of many transvestite jokes. (CNN) Eddie pushed aside the scandal and continued making movies. In 1998, he played the voice of Mushu the lizard in the Disney hit Mulan. During this same year he also starred in the remake of Dr. Doolittle. The movie the Nutty Professor II: The Klumps was released in the summer of 2000. Murphy again showed his comic versatility by featuring as all six lead characters. In 2001, Murphy again had landed two hit movies Dr. Doolittle 2 and the voice of the donkey in the hit movie Shrek. Murphy played an overwhelmed babysitter in Daddy Day Care which premiered in 2003. He revived Donkey and played in Shrek 2 back in 2004. In 2006, Murphy signed on for what may have been his most demanding film in his career. Murphy did a screen adaptation of the Broadway musical Dreamgirls, featuring Jennifer Hudson. His performance as soul singer James Thunder Early earned him a Golden Globe award and an Academy Award nomination. (Biography 3) In January of 2008, Murphy announced his split with film producer Tracey Edmonds. The couple married in Bora Bora on New Years Day of that year in front of 25 family members and friends. Murphy and his new wife planned to renew their vows on American soil after they found out the celebration wasnt legally binding. The second ceremony never took place, and the couple officially separated. (People Magazine) Murphy continues to work not only as a comedian and an actor, but as a film director, producer and a singer. His most recent work was Shrek Forever After. He again played the donkey in this movie when it was released May 21, 2010. Murphy is a co-star in Tower Heist, Brett Ratners heist movie that will be released November 4, 2011. This movie is being filmed as we speak. Future plans are in the air for a Beverly Hills Cop 4 which will supposedly not be done by producer Jerry Bruckheimer. (Wikipedia) My favorite thing about Eddie Murphy is his ability to play multiple characters in his movies. He is extremely talented and gifted. He has the ability to impersonate anyone with practice. Eddie does this as a tribute to his idol, Peter Sellers, who played multiple roles in Dr. Strangelove. The first multi-character film Murphy played in was Coming to America. He played the role of four different characters which were Prince Akeem Joffer, Clarence, Randy Watson, and Saul. The next film that Murphy would play multiple characters in was Vampires in Brooklyn. This was a horror film that was done by Wes Craven in 1995. In addition to playing the main character, Murphy also plays an alcoholic preacher and a foul-mouthed Italian gangster. The film that Murphy is most famous for his multiple character role is The Nutty Professor. In this movie he played the title role in two incarnations, plus his father, brother, mother, and grandmother. The use of makeup was very crucial in all these movies. Eddie also did a great job in changing his personality. Without knowledge that he plays multiple characters in all these movies, you wouldnt be able to tell that Murphy plays multiple roles. (Wikipedia) Murphy is mostly known for his acting roles, but rarely gets recognized for movies that he produces. Besides his comic stand ups that he has produced he as also helped produce major films such as The Nutty Professor(1996), Life(1999), Nutty Professor II: The Klumps(2000), and Norbit(2007). Murphy also starred, directed, and was a writer for the 1989 film Harlem Nights. Throughout Murphys career he has had his ups and his downs just like most actors. His work today has idolized millions. The man is a legend and will continue you to be one. At age 49 he is one of the most successful stars in Hollywood. Eddie Murphy is my hero and I will continue to watch him as long as he is around. Whether its by his foul language in the movie Life or the donkeys voice in Shrek I will continue to laugh because of Eddie Murphy.

Physical Security Essay Example for Free

Physical Security Essay A six foot fence secures the outer perimeter. Video surveillance is active on the north fence and inactive on the south. A manned guard station permits entrance into the outer perimeter from the west; an unmanned and unlocked gate permits entrance from the east. No Trespassing signs are posted at intervals upon the perimeter fence; Employees Only is posted on the gate. Visitors must obtain a pass at the guard station. The outer perimeter contains the parking lot and office building. The perimeter has two light posts that, when functioning, illuminate the entire parking lot. Currently, the light post on the south side is not functioning. The office building exterior has three outer doors and one window. The first door is marked with an Employees Only sign and requires a badge for access. The second door is the main entrance for visitors and is manned by a guard, who requires a visitor’s pass for admittance. The third door is an emergency exit only and is clearly marked. Any attempt to gain access through the first door without a badge, the second door without a pass, or the third door at all, results in alarm activation and guard response. The window is locked from within; any attempt to gain access through the window also activates the alarm and alerts the guard. The interior of the office building is segmented into two major areas. The first area is the employee workstation; only employees can access this area. Visitor and employees can access the second area. Both the first and second areas are monitored by active video surveillance. The second area has two doors, both of which lead to smaller offices. The first door is unlocked, but is within sight of video surveillance and employees within the work station. A visitor trying to attempt access to this office results in alarm activation. The second door is obscured from both employees and video surveillance and is unlocked. Each office contains valuable assets. Employees can access either office at will. Within the workstation and smaller offices are several computers. Passwords are required for access to each computer. Each employee has a password and can access network information at any time.

Glycaemic Control for Type 2 Diabetes

Glycaemic Control for Type 2 Diabetes Case study 1: Glycaemic Status A newly diagnosed type 2 diabetic patient attended his outpatient appointment and reported that he had been tightly monitoring his glycaemic control. The biochemical analysis produced the following results: Value Range [Plasma Glucose] fasting sample 12 mmol/l 4-6 mmol/l Urea 10.1 mmol/l 3.3-6.8 mmol/l HbA1c 10% Osmolality (mosm/kg) 277 mosm/kg 285-295 mosm/kg 1] Consider each of these findings and give an assessment of the   patient’s glycaemic control. The above type 2 diabetic patient with abnormal biochemical values [high fasting plasma glucose, HbA1C, urea and borderline Osmolality] showing hyperglycaemic condition though the patient reported, that he had been tightly monitoring his glycaemic control. This describes either his nonadherance to medication [1-4] or fluctuations in plasma glucose levels as he is a newly diagnosed diabetic patient. So he requires more counselling [14] about the disease monitoring [8] and management [5-7], medication [medication regimen] alterations. The high fasting plasma glucose value 12 mmol/l shows patient is having high blood sugar levels at the time of testing and high HbA1C value [10%] gives a retrospective assessment of the mean plasma glucose concentration during the preceding 6-8 weeks. As the percentage is twice the normal value [ High urea value 10.1 mmol/l shows that renal impairment caused by diabetes mellitus. Plasma creatinine and urea levels are established markers of Glomerular filtration rate [GFR]. High urea value in above patient suggests that impaired function of the nephrons. It could be attributed to a fall in the filtering capacity of the kidney thus leading to accumulation of waste products within the system [12-14, 16]. Borderline osmolality 277 mosm/kg suggests possibility of disrupted water balance from either excessive water intake [polydipsia caused by hyperglycaemia] or inadequate water excretion [impaired kidney function]. In this case further investigations like measurement of urine osmolality, urine volume and urine, plasma electrolytes [sodium] to confirm the reason for hypo osmolality [9, 22]. Thus above all classical symptoms are suggestive of uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. 2] Discuss the importance of glycaemic control and the effects that poor control can cause in these patients. It is very essential to control the hyper glycaemia in diabetic patients as uncontrolled diabetes can cause life threatening consequences [14, 20]. Vascular disease is a common complication of persistent poor glycaemic control in diabetes [9, 13, 14-16]. Macro vascular disease due to abnormalities of large vessels may present as coronary artery, cerebrovascular or peripheral vascular insufficiency. A number of risk factors have been associated with the metabolic syndrome, including hypertension, poor glycaemic control, central obesity, smoking, dyslipidaemia and glycated end products [16]. Microvascular disease due to abnormalities of small blood vessels particularly affects the retina [diabetic retinopathy] and the kidney [nephropathy]; both may be related to inadequate glucose control. Microvascular disease of the kidney is associated with proteinuria and progressive renal failure. Diffuse nodular glomerulosclerosis [Kimmelstiel Wilson lesions] may cause the nephrotic syndrome. The renal complications may be partly due to the increased glycation of structural proteins in the arterial walls supplying the glomerular basement membrane; glycation of protein in the lens may cause cataracts. Skin disorders, Infections like urinary tract or chest infections, cellulitis, candida and erectile dysfunction is also most common and partly neurologically mediated. Diabetic neuropathy, which can be peripheral symmetric sensory, peripheral painful, acute mononueropathies or autonomic. Diabetic ulcers, which can be ischemic, infective. The joints can also be affected, Charcot’s joints [9]. Type 2 diabetic patients are more likely to suffer from a hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic non-ketotic state [HONK] when their diabetic control is deranged [17, 18]. Hypoglycaemia is most commonly caused by accidental over administration of insulin or oral anti diabetic drugs [9, 19]. 3] Describe how this particular patient could achieve a better glycaemic control. The above diabetic patient with abnormal biochemical values could achieve a better glycaemic control, by diet control, weight reduction [if patient is overweight], and increased physical activity, medication adherence, medication regimen alteration and most importantly high dose of insulin may be required to control the hyperglycaemic status [7, 9,17]. Additionally care providers must educate and motivate the patient to monitor glucose levels, control carbohydrate consumption and aggressively participate in self-care to control disorder. In type 2 diabetic patients incretin hormones [glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependant insulinotropic polypeptide] maintain normal glucose homeostasis. Thus dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors, which enhance endogenous incretin function, are well suited for combination with other agents to promote daily glycaemic control without increasing the risk of hypoglycaemia or weight gain [21]. In this patient insulin secretion can be stimulated by sulphonyl urea drugs. Metformin decreases intestinal glucose absorption and hepatic gluconeogenesis as well as increasing tissue insulin sensitivity and which is particularly used in obese patients [9]. Acarbose delays postprandial absorption of glucose by inhibiting alpha-glucosidase. Glitazones activate ÃŽ ³-peroxisome proliferator activated receptors and which can reduce insulin resistance. Repaglinide increases insulin release from pancreatic ÃŽ ²-cells [9]. Glycaemic control efforts should involve quarterly glycated haemoglobin assessments, routine monitoring of daily blood glucose values and combination therapy that targets both fasting and post prandial hyperglycaemia. The lifetime strategy for diabetes management might involve aggressive efforts to control glycaemia daily and early in type 2 diabetes, with less stringent glucose targets and avoidance of hypoglycaemia as possibility of comorbidities, such as advanced cardiovascular disease and renal impairment [8, 14, 16, and 20]. References 1] Khattab, M. et Al. [2010] Factors associated with poor glycemic control among patients with type 2 diabetes. Journal of Diabetes and its Complications, 24, 84-89. [Accessed 12th February 2015]. 2] Almutairi, A.M. et Al. [2013] Predictors of poor glycemic control among type 2 diabetic patients. American Journal of Medical Sciences, 3 (2), 17-21. [Accesses 12th February 2015]. 3] Blackburn, F D., Swidrovich, J., Lemstra, M. [2013] Nonadherence in type 2 diabetes, practical consideration for interpreting the literature. Patient Preference and Adherence, 7, 183-189. [Accessed 12th February 2015]. 4] Di Bonaventura, M. et Al. [2014] The association between nonadherence and glycated haemoglobin among type 2 diabetes patients using basal insulin analogs. Patient Preference and Adherence, 8, 873-882. [Accessed 11th February 2015]. 5] Moreira, Jr. D E. et Al. [2013] Glycemic control and diabetes management in hospitalized patients in Brazil. Diabetology and Metabolic Syndrome, 5, 62. Available from: http://www.dmsjournal.com/content/5/1/62 [Accessed 11th February 2015]. 6] Schmeltz, R.L. et Al. [2011] Management of inpatient hyperglycemia. Lab Med, 42 (2), 427-434. Available from: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/744866_4 [Accessed 13th February]. 7] Fowler, J. M. et Al. [2011] Pitfalls in outpatient diabetes management and inpatient glycemic control. Clinical. Diabetes Journal.Org, 29 (2), 79-85. Available from: http://clinical.diabetesjournals.org/content/29/2/79.full [Accessed 13th February 2015]. 8] Clarke, S. F. and Foster, J.R. [2012] A history of blood glucose meters and their role in self-monitoring of diabetes mellitus. British Journal of Biomedical Science, 69 (2), 83-93. [Accessed 13th February 2015]. 9] Crook, M.A. (2006) Clinical biochemistry. 7th ed. Hodder Arnold 10] Walker, S., Beckett, G., Rae, P. and Ashby, P. (2010) Lecture notes on clinical biochemistry. 8th ed. Wiley – Blackwell. 11] Marshall, WJ. and Bangert, SK. (2004) Clinical chemistry. 5th ed. Mosby 12] Idonije, O. B. et Al [2011] Plasma glucose, creatinine and urea levels in type 2 diabetic patients attending a Nigerian teaching hospital. Research Journal of Medical Sciences, 5 (1), 1-3. Available from: http://www.medwelljournals.com/fulltext/?doi=rjmsci.2011.1.3 [Accessed 13th February 2015]. 13] Alao, O. et Al. [2009] Cardiovascular risk factors among diabetic patients attending a Nigerian teaching hospital. The Internet Journal of Endocrinology, 6 (1), 1-8. Available from: https://ispub.com/IJEN/6/1/11009 [Accessed 13th February 2015]. 14] The management of type 2 diabetes [2014] NICE clinical guidelines 87. Available from: http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg87 [Accessed 13th February 2015]. 15] Wallace, T. M and Matthews, D. R. [2000] Poor glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes: a conspiracy of disease, suboptimal therapy and attitude. The Quarterly Journal of Medicine, 93, 369-374. [Accessed 13th February 2015]. 16] Goud B. K, M. et Al. [2011] Serum urea, creatinine in relation to fasting plasma glucose levels in type 2 diabetic patients. International Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences, 1 (3), 279-283. [Accessed 13th February 2015]. 17] Pesce, J. A. and Kaplan, A. L. [1987] Methods in Clinical Chemistry. Mosby. 18] Diabetic ketoacidosis. Information about DKA. Patient.co.uk. Available from: http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/diabeticketoacidosis [Accessed 14th February 2015]. 19] Tight diabetic control. American Diabetes Association. Available from: http://www.diabetes.org/livingwithdiabetes/treatmentandcare/bloodglucosecontrol/tightdiabetescontrol.html [Accessed 14th February 2015]. 20] Ousman, MD. Y. and Sharma, MD. M. [2001] The irrefutable importance of glycemic control. Clinical Diabetes Journal.Org, 19 (2), 71-72. Available from: http://clinical.diabetesjournals.org/content/19/2/71.full [Accessed 14th February 2015]. 21] Bode, BW. [2009] Defining the importance of daily glycemic control and implications for type 2 diabetes management. Postgrad Med., 121 (5), 82-93. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19820277 [Accessed 14th February 2015]. 22] Weiner, D. Water regulation and osmolality. Available from: http://ocw.tufts.edu/data/33/497472.pdf [Accessed 17th February 2015]

Cover Letter Essay example -- essays research papers

RSC COVER LETTER TEMPLATE Some Points to Consider†¦  Put your name and contact info at the top of the letter. Make sure your name is in a font large enough to easily pick out.  Whenever possible, address the letter to a specific person by name and title. Even if responding to a job ad that states "no phone calls", consider calling to politely ask the name of the hiring authority. Unfortunately, you may not always be able to identify the name of a specific person. In which case, send the letter to the title of the recipient (i.e. Human Resources Manager, Recruiter, Marketing Manager, Accounts Payable Supervisor, Office Manager, etc). Do not use "To whom it may concern."  State your interest in the job for which you are applying and the company. Be particular about why you really like this position and company and not some other position and company.  Mention your skills, education, special training, and work experience that qualify you for the job. Try to think from the employer’s point of view - what skills and experience are they looking for in the ideal candidate for the job you want? (If you are replying to a specific job ad, this may be listed there) Stress these skills.  Provide a contact info (phone number, email) that you can be contacted easily or else somewhere where they can leave a message that check regularly (if need be give the best time the employer can reach you at). &am...

Julius Caesar :: essays papers

Julius Caesar Julius Caesar was born on July 12/13, 100? BC, and died March 15, 44 BC.Julius Caesar was a celebrated Roman general and statesman, the conqueror of Gaul (58-50 BC), victor in the Civil War of 49-46 BC, and dictator (46-44 BC), who was launching a series of political and social reforms, when he was assassinated by a group of nobles led by Brutus in the Senate House on the Ides of March, in an attempt to free Rome of the dictatorship. After Caesar's death Marc Anthony waged a war with the murderer of his mentor, ending with the suicide of Brutus. Caesar changed the course of the history of the Greco-Roman world decisively and irreversibly. The Greco-Roman society has been extinct for so long that most of the names of its great men mean little to the average, educated modern man. But Caesar's name, like Alexander's, is still on people's lips throughout the Christian and Islamic worlds. Even people who know nothing of Caesar as a historic personality are familiar with his family name as a title signifying a ruler who is in some sense uniquely supreme or paramount--the meaning of Kaiser in German, tsar in the Slavonic languages, and qaysar in the languages of the Islamic world. Caesar's Rome was filled with large rather plain stone buildings filled with ornate statues and busts. People's homes seemed to be quite large (although most homes that were portrayed were those of the wealthy), with large open courtyards. Rooms were without doors, but a thin cloth was draped across the bedrooms. The clothing of the day was limited to togas, some including designs and others were quite plain. Jewelry wasn't prevalent, although the men did wear a band of metal around their wrists. All of the men's hair was styled almost identically, with a part in the back and combed forward on the top as well as on the sides. The Romans warfare was similar to the wars of early America, in that they had both infantry and Calvary. A group of men on horses, led scores of men on foot. Weapons were limited to swords, knives, and bows. The armies were split up into groups of a certain number of men, which were led by an "officer". When the order was given to attack, each of these "officers" would in turn, give the order to their group of men, thus putting the battle into play.

The Concept of the Sublime In Relation to America Essay examples -- Ph

The Concept of the Sublime In Relation to America The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries witnessed a revival of the concept of the Sublime. The Sublime, as a notion, first reached English theorists by way of Nicholas Boileau-Desprà ©aux’s translation of the Greek text attributed to Longinus titled â€Å"On the Sublime,† which discussed the Sublime within writing. The work categorized sublimity as raising men â€Å"almost to the intellectual greatness of God† (Longinus, 76). Once raised to extreme intellectual heights the authors were then able to raise others to the limits of their being. In short, â€Å"the effect of the Sublime is â€Å"transport† (ekstasis) - it is a quality of a passage which â€Å"shatters the hearer’s composure,†Ã¢â‚¬  (Abrams, 308) due to the heightened ability of the writer. Longinus’ concept of the Sublime reached further fruition when discussed in Edmund Burke’s Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful and I mmanuel Kant’s Critique of Judgment, as well as in works by Dennis, Addison, Hume and poets Wordsworth, Thomson, and Mallet who attempted to clarify and diversify the concept. America, a land bubbling over with sublime images, added real-world value to the discussion; as such, the literature, philosophy and art during America’s exploration of itself focused on the image of the sublime as a means of breaking from the past, of discerning power and of forging a new identity. The Sublime is an aesthetic concept that deals with the force of a perception. For Edmund Burke, who brought the Sublime from â€Å"the level of judgment as David Hume had done†¦.[to the] level of sensibility† (Sertoli), the Sublime emerged from contemplation of â€Å"whatever is fitted in any sort to excite the i... ...ry_theory/entries/british_theory_and_criticism-_2.html Rodgers, David. Sublime, the. 10/11/98. Grover Online Dictionary of Art. 10/02/04. http://www.joh.net/phd/appendices/texts/sublimegove.html Sertoli, Guispeppe. â€Å"Edmund Burke.† The John Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism. 1997. John Hopkins University Press. 10/05/04. http://www.press.jhu.edu.ezproxy.library.dal.ca/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/entries/edmund_burke.html _______. Sublime. 2001. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 10/02/04 http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/sublime.htm http://www.press.jhu.edu.ezproxy.library.dal.ca/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/entries/british_theory_and_criticism-_2.html Sulerud, Maija. Thomas Cole: The Oxbow (The Connecticut River near Northampton) 1836. 2003. St. Olaf College. 10/02/04. http://www.stolaf.edu/depts/cis/wp/sulerudm/

Unit Three – Marketing P3

Marketing Research Market research indicates decisions made by a business, in this case Tesco, by helping the decision makers understand undercurrents of its market. This process involves research done on customers, competitors and the overall marketing environment. For example, when Tesco is promoting a product, they need to know the likes and dislikes of their targeted consumers in order to target the correct market successfully. They would also be required to research about their competitors, to find out if by any chance they offered a product that was similar, and how they would differentiate their product from it.Also, as an overall, they would be required to research the environment of the market, as well as the size of their target market, in order to decide how they are going to offer the product to the consumers. Example: sold in store, online, or both. Primary and Secondary Research There are two types of research: †¢Primary Research †¢Secondary Research Informati on for these types of research can be done internally – within the organization, or externally, from another organization or source of information outside the organization, in this case Tesco.When information or data is gathered for a certain purpose and has not been gathered before is known is primary research. Internal primary research data source could consist of: †¢The business’s sales figures of products †¢A central database holding customer data External primary research data source could consist of: †¢Various questionnaires and surveys †¢A variety of focus groups and interviews †¢Observation techniques When data or information that has been collected before, either internally or externally, is used for research is known as secondary research. Another name for secondary research is ‘desk research’.Internal secondary research data source could consist of: †¢Sales and regional reports †¢Market research gathered in the past External secondary research data source could consist of: †¢Websites and trade journals †¢Newspapers and books †¢Public reports †¢Census data †¢Industry reports For business like Tesco that operate in many different fields, secondary research is more cost-effective, before they decide to conduct primary research. This allows Tesco to have a better understanding of the market, as well as recognize any major obstacles before conducting expensive research.Secondary research also allows them to make assumptions based on similar products and therefore, once primary research is conducted, it can be used against the assumptions to evaluate and compare. This will help indicate how much primary research they are required to do and therefore they don’t end up doing too much that is not required. However, Tesco is required to take the limitation of secondary research into consideration: †¢The information may be outdated †¢The information may be b iased in order to promote particular causes †¢The methods used to collect the research may be unreliable.Qualitative and Quantitative Research Research methods can be qualitative, quantitive or can include both methods. Well-planned market research consists of both methods in order to result with a good combination of information revealing different things about the same market. Qualitative research is one-sided and normally unrestricted. It normally is gathered through interviews with customers or focus groups and therefore result in a wide range of research based on personal experiences and feelings.A qualitative question allows the individual go give a broad answer and not based against options. Qualitative research can be used to: †¢Find the perceptions of customers about an organization or brand. †¢Discover how changes in price and other factors affect customers and spending decisions. †¢Explore customer preference, interests and other factors. Quantitative research involves numbers and figures that can be examined mathematically or graphically. This may consist of sales figures, market values, etc. , as well as responses from customers on questionnaires.This is only categorized as quantitative research if the responses from the customers a chosen from series of answers provided on the questionnaire. The difference between quantitative and qualitative research: QuantitativeQualitative ObjectiveSubjective Tests theoryDevelops theory Concise and narrowComplex and broad Measurable Interpretive Basic analysis: NumbersBasic analysis: words and ideas Logical and reasonableDialectic Establishes relationshipsDescribes meaning Experimental settingNatural setting Uses of marketing researchThe information collected for market research prevents businesses like Tesco making wrong business decisions. If the product designer for Tesco progresses a new product without market research, then the business is not moving forward on reliable sources and the refore are unaware if customers are interested in the product or not. This indicates, effective market research improves the chances of success and reduces the risks. Tesco’s can also measure progress effectively over time. This can be done by, carrying out market research, to found out the awareness of the product before managing national advertising campaigns.Once they have conducted the research, they can put their national advertising campaigns into action and again conduct research and compare the two. Therefore, this indicates, market research can be used to measure progress as well as the effects of marketing activities. Limitations of market research – costs, effectiveness and validity of data collected Weather market research is done at a small or large scale, any time is required to be performed accurately and appropriately otherwise it gives irrelevant results.All market research conducted has the chances of being wrong no matter how well controlled and plan ned. There are various reasons why market research may not provide accurate or good results but a usual problem is deciding whether the research conducted really measures what it claims to be measuring. Marketers for Tesco are required to decide how reliable the information they have obtained is. Also they need to take into consideration, if the research contained had different respondents or different set of data points, would the results be similar.Validity refers to whether the research conducted is what it intended to be. Validity involves dependability, which means, a valid measure must be reliable. But, reliability doesn’t have to link to validity, a reliable measure is not required to be valid. The difference between reliability and validity: †¢Reliability guesses the point to which an tool processes the same way each time it is used in under the same conditions with the same subjects. †¢Validity involves the point of accuracy of your measurement.For organiza tions like Tesco’s, validity is considered more important than reliability because if a process does not precisely measure what it is supposed to, there is no use of it and therefore it being reliable is useless. Costs are also an essential consideration for Tesco when carrying out market research, as they are required to take into consideration if they money spent is worth the research undertaken and its potential benefits to the product, as well as the organization. A lot of time, effort and money can be spent on market research and in the end the solution discovered might not be worth implementing.

The Amateur Marriage

Anne Tylers The Amateur union ceremony is a novel depicting deuce mismatched spouses that continu totallyy fight for sixer decades. They from each unrivalled fail to form their avow person sense of identify. They also do not form a fond sense of identity as a couple within a large community. They each fight for superiority in the marriage as their identity. This paper go out examine this long-term conflict, related to each spouses quest for unmarried identity. Several elements form the identity of an individual.Some atomic number 18 biological, stemming from ancestry in nationality, ethnic, and genetic backgrounds and, from grassroots human needs of food, shelter, love, and recognition (Richland College, 2007). former(a)(a) elements atomic number 18 well-disposed, including what groups a person joins or tries to join, religious background and conversions to other religions, g all overnmental leanings, and c atomic number 18ers and occupations. One also sees aneself in whiz way, spell others see them in another(prenominal), fashioning up two identities that usually do not fully match.Further, an individual is a son/daughter, spouse/partner, parent, or other relative or friend of someone else, and these are identities as well. One interest and very strong identity is the one arising from being in conflict with another person or group. Such a person may be, for example, anti child-abuse, anti war-with-Iraq or against all that his neighbor who has insulted him stands for. The drive of Psychiatry, Sigmund Freud, taught that all identity is biologically relegateed, immaculate by the end of adolescence (Richland College, 2007).His student Erik Erickson bust away from Freud, believing that identity forms via societal interactions as well as biological maturity date by means ofout the lifespan, not end in adolescence (ibid. ). Identity is an ongoing process. Erikson devised octad Stages of Man. These include consecrate (infant), Autonom y (toddler), curtain raising (child), Identity (adolescent), Intimacy (young adult), Generativity (middle age), and Integrity (older age). Erickson believed that hearty environment combines with biology (aging) to give community sets of crises to resolve at each stage.Resolving them creates maturity, be motion one must resolve the crises of one level before going on to the next, or become stuck at the lower level, neer to mature and forever having the same reference of problems, as the main couple in Tylers novel do. The couple Pauline and Michael Anton meets in pre-WWII Baltimore. Pauline jumps from a ropeway to join a patriotic promenade and suffers a head gash, so she flings herself into Michaels old family grocery store for support. A more reserved individual, Michael is taken aback by Paulines prominent energy and falls instantly in love.Both in their early 20s, they marry, altogether if they do not pass adolescence and never dampen intimacy. mike goes to war, is shot in training, and comes straight home. He and Pauline grant three children and move to the suburbs. They have legion(predicate) conflicts over the geezerhood and their marriage stagnates, because they are both stuck in childhood and adolescence, battle over everything to be known as the success and the superior partner. Pauline always flies score the handle emotionally, while Michael silently stews over things as unremarkable as whether it will get rimy enough to snow.Nothing is ever solved over 60 years clock, and the marriage and the individual Antons do not change or grow, either. They cut themselves off from the social interactions that would help them to grow. Their identity was formed by the succession they married and never had a expectation to develop further, because they would not allow it. They fight, each trying to win in regularize to be identified as the winner and the leader of the marriage. Then either would tactual sensation important, worthy, and ad ult. Unfortunately, it never happens. Mike is Polish Catholic, Pauline is WASP, and these disparate ethnic and religious identities are hard to meld into a marriage.Pauline believes that two souls should combine as one. Michael feels that they should remain distinct, plainly walk in the same direction. The marriage usher outnot work, because neither will learn excess new ways of thinking. Thus, for six decades, she is flighty, he is cold, and they remain constant in this. time marriages of their friends grow and develop via individual maturity and interactions as a couple through the usual give and take with a larger community, the Antons marriage is stuck because of their feuding. Life passes them by, merely for the problems.The Antons and their marriage cannot grow up. The author describes the friends increase marriages as fruit channelises Marriages are standardised fruit trees After a time they meld, they grow together, and it doesnt matter how crazy the amalgamate is, p eaches on an apple tree or cherries on a plum tree still if you tried to separate them you would cause a fatal wound. Meanwhile, the Antons marriage is a gnarled, wizened, whiskery tree you see on windbeaten cliffs where theres not enough soil or water. The marriage is anorexic, starving to death.Pauline, who once love Mikes reserved qualities chafed daily at . . . his rigidity, his caution, his literal-mindedness . . . his reluctance to go by money, his suspicion of anything unfamiliar, his tendency to pass taste . . . and his magical ability to make her face hysterical (p. 75). Michaels opinion of Pauline becomes a frantic, im workable woman, so unstable, heretofore in good moods, with her exultant theatrical role and glittery eyes, her dangerous excitement (p. 167). incomplete one is concerned with self-development, but only with criticizing the other.Over the decades, they become entrenched in these mindsets and futile to develop past their mid-twenties, psychologicall y. The miss all of the intimacy, generativity and integrity by holding onto adolescence. In identity, they are only the engagement spouses. When he does think about the marriage and where it is going, Mike sees that all those young marrieds of the war years have grown wise and veteran(a) and comfortable in their roles, until only he and Pauline remained, as inexperienced as ever the last couple left over(p) in the amateurs parade (p.168). He dictum themselves as more like companion and sister than husband and wife. This constant jostle and competing, jockeying for position, glorying in I-told-you-so (p. 168). Further, the Antons medicine-abusing daughter lindy hop sees the family as a stagnated hell, a wretched, mixed knot, inward-turned, stunted, like a trapped obnubilate chewing its own leg off (p. 300). The marriage is stuck, as well as the family. In dysfunctional families, some members develop identities despite the stagnation and toxicity.The development of much(p renominal) an identity, a hardy personality, is exposit by Professor Suzanne Kobasa Ouellette of City University of mod York (Richland College, 2007). Hardiness and its needed control, commitment, and challenge develop through attaining the following eight skills 1. clear and tolerate anxiety and act anyway. 2. identify fantasy from reality and tackle reality. 3. exercise goals and establish priorities. 4. Project into the future and get a line how todays choices affect the future. 5. Discriminate and make choices coherent with goals and values.6. Set boundaries and limits. 7. Ask assertively for wants and desires. 8. Trust self and own perceptions. Some dysfunctional people achieve these skills through education and counseling, but the Antons do not. Even when they solve to parent their small grandson Pagan, whom they rescue from the drug culture, they cannot reconcile their entrenched differences. Pauline believes their fights can be patched up in a firefighting managemen t technique. Michael sees these fights as hellfire itself. Mike and Pauline decide well(p) to tolerate each other, until Michael leaves.Even though it is possible to develop self-identities through conflict, Mike and Pauline are not able to do so, because they do not stop fighting in order to find social interactions as a couple (clubs, unpaid worker work, etc,), and counseling that would help them grow. They remain in the adolescent stage in their mid-60s. At this age and firmly entrenched in adolescence, it may or may not be too late for homo to grow further psychologically. REFERENCES Kriesberg, Lewis. , PhD. Us versus Them. 2003.From the website of beyond Intractability A Free acquaintance Base on More constructive Approaches to Destructive Conflict http//www. beyondintractability. org/essay/identity_issues/ Retrieved Feb. 25 2007. Richland College. Dallas County Community College District. 12800 Abrams Road, Dallas, TX 75243-2199. The Developmental Psychology of Erik Eri kson. From the Richland College website http//www. rlc. dcccd. edu/MATHSCI/anth/P101/DVLMENTL/ERIKSON. HTM/ Retrieved Feb 25 2007. Tyler, Anne. The Amateur Marriage. New York Alfred A. Knopf. 2004